1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Scope

The challenges of Deepwater oilfields and inter-continental gas transportation present the biggest opportunities the pipeline technology faces today. New thermal insulation technologies will be required to assure that produced fluid will flow through long distance subsea pipelines, at low seafloor temperature.

At some fields, strong currents, high pressure and high temperature (HP, HT), sour reservoirs and deepwater conditions are pushing the limits of steel pipes used in flow-lines.

The scope of this study will cover the following topics:

Give an overview of problems related to the transport of unprocessed and sometimes corrosive multiphase well streams in deepwater pipelines, in low ambient temperature and high external pressure environment, conducive to the formation of paraffin deposits, wax or hydrates (Chapter 2, Pipeline Design for Deep Water and Chapter 3, Interface Requirement)
Review material and pipe-line technology currently available in the industry to overcome the above technical problems while keeping cost at competitive levels (Chapter 4, Pipe line Technology Review)
Provide information on flow assurance topics, insulation material and heating technique applied to deepwater pipeline, to mitigate the deleterious effects of wax and hydrate formation and internal corrosion (Chapter 5, Insulation Techniques and Chapter 6, Heating Techniques)
Give list of installation and tie-in methods dedicated to different types of flow-line system including interface requirement, burial technique, etc. (Chapter 7, Trenching Techniques andChapter 8, Installation Techniques)
Provide information on internal corrosion monitoring system (Chapter 9, Internal Corrosion Monitoring)
Finally analyse the applications and limitations, along with the advantages and disadvantages of each pipeline technology and its installation methods (Chapter 10, Applications & Limitations and Chapter 11, Advantages & Disadvantages)

This document will also provide references on pipeline design topics (Chapter 2, Pipeline Design for Deep Water) as follows:

Review of pipe design criteria
Review of the engineering principles behind the codes
Pipeline design engineering key topics (question to design contractors)

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1.2 Codes, Standards, Specifications and Reference Documents

1.2.1 General

There are a number of national and international pipeline design codes in use. This section lists the codes that have become generally or widely used. Pipeline design codes fall into two general categories of design principle: Allowable Stress Design (ASD, also referred to working stress design) and limit state design, also referred to as Load Resistance Factor Design (LRFD).

The following publications provide valuable information, of which pipeline design and experience:

Offshore Technology Conference papers from 1969 to 2006 (OTC)
International Conference Offshore Mechanics & Artic Engineering from 1982 to 2006 (OMAE)
Proceedings of International Offshore & Polar Engineering Conference, 1991 to 2006 (ISOPE)
Limit State Design of Pipeline & Risers – IBC UK Conferences (Y. BAI, 1999)
Rigid Pipeline Design Guidelines (Internal Report)

1.2.2 ASD Codes

Allowable stress design codes evolved in the 1950s and are based on a single safety factor to prevent the pipeline steel yielding. Examples are:

ISO 13623, Petroleum and natural gas industries – Pipeline transportation systems;
ASME B31.4 : Pipeline Transportation Systems for Liquid Hydrocarbons and Other Liquids
ASME B31.8 : Gas Transportation and Distribution Systems

1.2.3 Limit State Design Codes

Limit state design codes arrived in the 1990’s and are based on separate (partial) safety factors for loads and resistance, and prevent the pipeline reaching a limit state such as bursting or buckling. Examples are:

DNVGL-ST-F101, Submarine pipeline systems, 2017;
API RP 1111, Design, Construction, Operation and Maintenance of Offshore Hydrocarbon Pipelines (Limit State Design),
ISO 16708, Pipeline transportation systems - Reliability-based limit state methods.

1.2.4 Worldwide Application

ISO 13623 is the only international standard for pipeline design and presents a legally binding minimum level of safety. It does not appear to have seen widespread usage with national codes generally being used in preference. ISO 16708:2006 specifies the functional requirements and principles for design, operation and re-qualification of pipelines in the petroleum and natural gas industries using reliability based limit state methods as permitted by ISO 13623. Reliability-based limit state methods provide a systematic way to predict pipeline safety in design and operation. ISO 16708:2006 supplements ISO 13623 and can be used in cases where ISO 13623 does not provide specific guidance and where limit states methods can be applied, such as, but not limited to:

Qualification of new concepts, e.g. when new technology is applied or for design scenarios where industry experience is limited,
Re-qualification of the pipeline due to a changed design basis, such as service-life extension, which can include reduced uncertainties due to improved integrity monitoring and operational experience,
Collapse under external pressure in deep water,
Extreme loads, such as seismic loads (e.g. at a fault crossing), ice loads (e.g. by impact from ice keels),
Situations where strain-based criteria can be appropriate.

1.2.5 Specific or Specialist Codes

[1]	API_17B	Recommended Practise For Flexible Pipe, 2014
[2]	API_17J	Specification for Unbonded Flexible Pipe, 2014
[3]	API_5L	Specification for Line Pipe, 46th Edition
[4]	API_5LC	Specification for CRA Line Pipe, 4th Edition
[5]	API_5LD	Specification for CRA Clad or Lined Steel Pipe, 5th Edition (2015)
[6]	API_RP_1111	Design, Construction, Operation, and Maintenance of Offshore Hydrocarbon Pipelines (Limit State Design)
[7]	API_RP_14_E	Offshore production piping systems
[8]	API_RP_5LW	Recommended Practice for Transportation of Line Pipe on Barges and Marine Vessels
[9]	DNV_RP_C205	Environmental Conditions and Environmental Loads
[10]	DNV_RP_F112	Design of Duplex Stainless Steel Subsea Equipment Exposed to Cathodic Protection
[11]	DNV-OS-F101	Submarine Pipeline Systems
[12]	DNV-RP-F101	Corroded Pipelines, 2004
[13]	DNVGL_ST_F101	Submarine Pipeline Systems
[14]	DNVGL-RP-B401	Cathodic protection design
[15]	DNVGL-RP-F102	Pipeline field joint coating and field repair of line pipe coating
[16]	DNVGL-RP-F103	Cathodic protection of submarine pipelines
[17]	DNVGL-RP-F105	Free spanning pipelines
[18]	DNVGL-RP-F106	Factory applied pipeline coatings for corrosion control
[19]	DNVGL-RP-F107	Risk assessment of pipeline protection
[20]	DNVGL-RP-F108	Assessment of flaws in pipeline and riser girth welds
[21]	DNVGL-RP-F109	On-bottom stability design of submarine pipelines
[22]	DNVGL-RP-F110	Global buckling of submarine pipelines
[23]	DNVGL-RP-F111	Interference between trawl gear and pipelines
[24]	DNVGL-RP-F112	Design of duplex stainless steel subsea equipment exposed to cathodic protection
[25]	DNVGL-RP-F113	Sec.1 Pipeline subsea repair
[26]	DNVGL-RP-F114	Pipe-soil interaction for submarine pipelines
[27]	DNVGL-RP-F115	Pre-commissioning of pipelines
[28]	DNVGL-RP-F116	Integrity management of submarine pipeline systems
[29]	DNVGL-RP-F204	Riser fatigue
[30]	DNVGL-RP-J202	Design and operation or carbon dioxide pipelines
[31]	DNVGL-RP-O501	Managing sand production and erosion
[32]	DNVGL-SE-0476	Offshore riser systems
[33]	DNVGL-ST-F101	Submarine Pipeline Systems
[34]	DNVGL-ST-F201	Dynamic risers
[35]	NORSOK_M_001	Materials selection
[36]	NORSOK_M-001	Materials selection
[37]	NORSOK_M-506	CO2 Corrosion Rate Calculation Model,2016

1.2.6 TOTAL Standards

[38]	GS_EP_COR_102	Design of cathodic protection of sealine by sacrificial anodes
[39]	GS_EP_COR_110	External cathodic protection of buried pipelines
[40]	GS_EP_COR_220	Three layer polyethylene external coating for pipeline
[41]	GS_EP_COR_221	Three layer polypropylene external coating for pipeline
[42]	GS_EP_COR_222	Fusion bonded epoxy (FBE) external coating for pipeline
[43]	GS_EP_COR_226	Materials for thermal insulation of pipeline, piping and subsea components
[44]	GS_EP_COR_250	Friction-reduction internal coatings for pipelines transporting non-corrosive gases
[45]	GS_EP_COR_251	Internal coating of water injection pipelines
[46]	GS_EP_COR_401	Installation of anodes on submerged pipelines
[47]	GS_EP_PLR_100	Submarine pipeline system
[48]	GS_EP_PLR_109	Design, fabrication and testing of submarine unbonded flexible pipes and risers
[49]	GS_EP_PLR_401	Installation of submarine pipelines
[50]	GS_EP_PLR_405	Design and installation of hot tapings on subsea gas pipelines
[51]	GS_EP_PLR_410	Concrete coating for submarine pipelines
[52]	GS_EP_PLR_501	Hydrostatic testing of pipelines
[53]	GS_EP_PLR_502	Precommissioning of submarine gas pipelines
[54]	GS_EP_SPS_002	Design of subsea structures
[55]	GS_EP_SPS_004	Subsea Manifold System Gate Valves
[56]	GS_EP_SPS_007	Tie-in systems
[57]	GS_EP_SPS_024	Subsea mechanical quarter turn actuator (Manually operated gearbox)
[58]	GS_EP_SPS_025	Subsea hydraulic spring return quarter turn actuators
[59]	GS_EP_SPS_029	Metallic Materials for Subsea Production Facilities
[60]	GS_EP_SPS_038	Subsea Structures design & fabrication
[61]	GS-EP-GEO-202	Geophysical Survey for the Installation and/or the Inspection of Offshore Structures and Pipelines
[62]	GS-EP-PLR-109	Design, fabrication and testing of submarine unbounded flexible pipes and risers
[63]	GS-EP-PLR-110	Design, fabrication and testing of submarine bonded flexible pipes for deepwater terminals
[64]	GS-EP-PLR-401	Risers, Installation of Submarine Pipelines
[65]	GS-EP-PLR-405	Design and installations of hot tappings on subsea gas pipelines
[66]	GS-EP-PLR-426	Site welding of carbon steel and CRA pipelines (sweet and sour)
[67]	GS-EP-PLR-425	Site welding of carbon steel pipelines (sweet and sour service, onshore and offshore) according to API STD 1104
[68]	GS-EP-PLR-228	Carbon steel tees for pipelines
[69]	GS-EP-PLR-227	Carbon Steel Flanges, Branch Outlet Fittings and Forged Components for Pipelines
[70]	GS-EP-PLR-226	Fabrication of hot bends for pipelines
[71]	GS-EP-PLR-205	Carbon Steel, clad and lined pipe manufacturing for linepipe applications according to API SPEC 5L and DNV-OS-F101 (sweet and sour service, onshore and offshore)
[72]	GS-EP-PLR-152	Hybrid Riser Systems
[73]	GS-EP-PLR-151	Design of steel catenary riser systems
[74]	GS-EP-EXP-105	Pre-commissioning execution
[75]	GS-EP-EXP-103	Pre-commissioning and commissioning Engineering
[76]	GS-EP-EXP-101	Pre-commissioning and Commissioning Specification

1.2.7 Deepwater Reference Books

[77]	T084-EN001	Riser Systems
[78]	T084-EN002	Pipeline Systems
[79]	T084-EN003	Subsea Production Systems
[80]	T084-EN004	Umbilicals
[81]	T084-EN005	Subsea Control Systems
[82]	T084-EN006	Deepwater Installation Methods
[83]	T084-EN007	Subsea Connections & Tie-in Methods
[84]	T084-EN008	Deepwater ROV & Tools
[85]	T084-EN009	Offshore Platforms & Floaters and Mooring Systems
[86]	T084-EN010	Field Architectures
[87]	T084-EN011	Subsea Processing and Pumping Systems

1.3 Definitions & Abbreviations

In TOTAL PLR general specification the use of following terms are defined:

"pipeline" or "pipeline system" is used to talk about subsea pipelines/systems
"flowline" is used for infield lines
"sealine" could be any subsea line
“export lines” are "pipelines" not "flowlines" and often referred as “export pipeline”

1.3.1 Definitions

Crack: Planar and bi-dimensional feature with possible displacement of the fracture surfaces.
Deepwater: Water column comprised between 500m (1600ft) and 1500m (5000ft) of water depth..
Deformation: Change in shape, such as a bend, buckle, dent, ovality, ripple, wrinkle or any other changer, which affects the roundness of the pipe's cross-section or straightness of the pipe.
Deviation: Difference observed by the auditor between what is described in the reference used and what is applied.
DP vessel: Dynamically Positioned vessel means a unit, a ship or vessel which automatically maintains its position and heading with respect to one or more references, exclusively by means of thruster forces.
Flowline: The conduit system e.g. steel pipeline, flexible line, bundle, etc., divided in two parts: static "sealine” section resting on seabed and dynamic "riser" section ‘hanging’ from seabed to surface
Pitting: Localized corrosion of a metal surface that is confined to small areas and takes the form of cavities called pits.

1.3.2 Abbreviations

CAPEX: Capital Expenditure
C-Mn: Carbon-Manganese
CRA: Corrosion Resistant Alloy
CSD: Cutter Suction Dredger
CTOD: Crack Tip Opening Displacement
DAF: Dynamic Amplification Factor
DEH: Direct Electrical Heating
DGPS: Differential Global Positioning System
DNV: Det Norske Veritas
DP: Dynamic Positioning
DP: Dual Port
DSV: Diving Support Vessel
EHT: Electrical Heat Tracing
ERW: Electric Resistance Weld
FBE: Fusion Bounded Epoxy
FEA: Finite Element Analysis
FLET: Flowline End Termination
FOC: Fiber Optic Cable
FS: Field Signature
FSM: Field Signature Method
GOM: Gulf of Mexico
GTAW: Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
HAZ: Heat Affected Zone
HDPE: High Density Poly ethylene
HIC: Hydrogen Induced Cracking
HIC: Hub Inspection Camera
HP: High Pressure
HT: High Temperature
ID: Internal Diameter
ID: IDentification
ILT: In-Line Tee
IPB: Integrated Production Bundle
IPB: In Plane Bending
IPU: Integrated Production Umbilical
JIP: Joint Industry Project
LCC: Life Cycle Costing
LDS: Limit State Design
LNG: Liquefied Natural Gas
LRFD: Load Resistance Factor Design code
MLEC: Mid-Line Electrical Connector
NDT: Non Destructive Testing
OD: Outside Diameter
OHTC: Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
OOS: Out Of Straightness
OPEX: Operational Expenditure
PA-11: Polyamid 11
PE: PolyEthylene
PEX: Cross Wound Polyethylene
PGMAW: Pulsed Gas Metal Arc Welding
PIP: Pipe in Pipe
PLEM: Pipeline End Manifold
PLET: Pipe Line End Termination
PP: PolyPropylene
PU: Production Unit
PU: Pump Unit
PUF: Polyurethane Foam
PVC: Polyvinyle Chloride
PVDF: Polyvinylidene Fluoride
RAO: Response Amplitude Operator
ROV: Remotely Operated Vehicle
SAW: Submerged Arc Welding
SCC: Stress Corrosion Cracking
SECT: Skin Effect Current Tracing
SMYS: Specified Minimum Yield Strength
SPM: Single Point Mooring
SSCC: Sulphide Stress Corrosion Cracking
TIG: Tungstene Inhert Gas
TMCP: Thermo-Mechanical Controlled Processing
VIV: Vortex Induced Vibration
VLS: Vertical Laying System
WD: Water Depth
WT: Wall Thickness

1.4 Acknowledgements

We wish to thank the manufacturers and subsea contractors for the provision with courtesy of technical information and photographs of their products.

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